;;;; code to implement bignum support

;;;; This software is part of the SBCL system. See the README file for
;;;; more information.
;;;;
;;;; This software is derived from the CMU CL system, which was
;;;; written at Carnegie Mellon University and released into the
;;;; public domain. The software is in the public domain and is
;;;; provided with absolutely no warranty. See the COPYING and CREDITS
;;;; files for more information.

(in-package "SB!BIGNUM")

;;;; notes

;;; comments from CMU CL:
;;;   These symbols define the interface to the number code:
;;;       add-bignums multiply-bignums negate-bignum subtract-bignum
;;;       multiply-bignum-and-fixnum multiply-fixnums
;;;       bignum-ashift-right bignum-ashift-left bignum-gcd
;;;       bignum-to-float bignum-integer-length
;;;       bignum-logical-and bignum-logical-ior bignum-logical-xor
;;;       bignum-logical-not bignum-load-byte
;;;       bignum-truncate bignum-plus-p bignum-compare make-small-bignum
;;;       bignum-logbitp bignum-logcount
;;;   These symbols define the interface to the compiler:
;;;       bignum-type bignum-element-type bignum-index %allocate-bignum
;;;       %bignum-length %bignum-set-length %bignum-ref %bignum-set
;;;       %digit-0-or-plusp %add-with-carry %subtract-with-borrow
;;;       %multiply-and-add %multiply %lognot %logand %logior %logxor
;;;       %fixnum-to-digit %bigfloor %fixnum-digit-with-correct-sign %ashl
;;;       %ashr %digit-logical-shift-right))

;;; The following interfaces will either be assembler routines or code
;;; sequences expanded into the code as basic bignum operations:
;;;    General:
;;;       %BIGNUM-LENGTH
;;;       %ALLOCATE-BIGNUM
;;;       %BIGNUM-REF
;;;       %NORMALIZE-BIGNUM
;;;       %BIGNUM-SET-LENGTH
;;;       %FIXNUM-DIGIT-WITH-CORRECT-SIGN
;;;       %SIGN-DIGIT
;;;       %ASHR
;;;       %ASHL
;;;       %BIGNUM-0-OR-PLUSP
;;;       %DIGIT-LOGICAL-SHIFT-RIGHT
;;;    General (May not exist when done due to sole use in %-routines.)
;;;       %DIGIT-0-OR-PLUSP
;;;    Addition:
;;;       %ADD-WITH-CARRY
;;;    Subtraction:
;;;       %SUBTRACT-WITH-BORROW
;;;    Multiplication
;;;       %MULTIPLY
;;;    Negation
;;;       %LOGNOT
;;;    Shifting (in place)
;;;       %NORMALIZE-BIGNUM-BUFFER
;;;    GCD/Relational operators:
;;;       %DIGIT-COMPARE
;;;       %DIGIT-GREATER
;;;    Relational operators:
;;;       %LOGAND
;;;       %LOGIOR
;;;       %LOGXOR
;;;    LDB
;;;       %FIXNUM-TO-DIGIT
;;;    TRUNCATE
;;;       %BIGFLOOR
;;;
;;; Note: The floating routines know about the float representation.
;;;
;;; PROBLEM 1:
;;; There might be a problem with various LET's and parameters that take a
;;; digit value. We need to write these so those things stay in machine
;;; registers and number stack slots. I bind locals to these values, and I
;;; use function on them -- ZEROP, ASH, etc.
;;;
;;; PROBLEM 2:
;;; In shifting and byte operations, I use masks and logical operations that
;;; could result in intermediate bignums. This is hidden by the current system,
;;; but I may need to write these in a way that keeps these masks and logical
;;; operations from diving into the Lisp level bignum code.
;;;
;;; To do:
;;;    fixnums
;;;       logior, logxor, logand
;;;       depending on relationals, < (twice) and <= (twice)
;;;       or write compare thing (twice).
;;;       LDB on fixnum with bignum result.
;;;       DPB on fixnum with bignum result.
;;;       TRUNCATE returns zero or one as one value and fixnum or minus fixnum
;;;       for the other value when given (truncate fixnum bignum).
;;;       Returns (truncate bignum fixnum) otherwise.
;;;       addition
;;;       subtraction (twice)
;;;       multiply
;;;       GCD
;;;    Write MASK-FIELD and DEPOSIT-FIELD in terms of logical operations.
;;;    DIVIDE
;;;       IF (/ x y) with bignums:
;;;       do the truncate, and if rem is 0, return quotient.
;;;       if rem is non-0
;;;          gcd of x and y.
;;;          "truncate" each by gcd, ignoring remainder 0.
;;;          form ratio of each result, bottom is positive.

;;;; What's a bignum?

(defconstant digit-size sb!vm:n-word-bits)

(defconstant maximum-bignum-length (1- (ash 1 (- sb!vm:n-word-bits
                                                 sb!vm:n-widetag-bits))))

(defconstant all-ones-digit (1- (ash 1 sb!vm:n-word-bits)))

;;;; internal inline routines

;;; %ALLOCATE-BIGNUM must zero all elements.
(defun %allocate-bignum (length)
  (declare (type bignum-index length))
  (%allocate-bignum length))

;;; Extract the length of the bignum.
(defun %bignum-length (bignum)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (%bignum-length bignum))

;;; %BIGNUM-REF needs to access bignums as obviously as possible, and it needs
;;; to be able to return the digit somewhere no one looks for real objects.
(defun %bignum-ref (bignum i)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type bignum-index i))
  (%bignum-ref bignum i))
(defun %bignum-set (bignum i value)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type bignum-index i)
           (type bignum-element-type value))
  (%bignum-set bignum i value))

;;; Return T if digit is positive, or NIL if negative.
(defun %digit-0-or-plusp (digit)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type digit))
  (not (logbitp (1- digit-size) digit)))

#!-sb-fluid (declaim (inline %bignum-0-or-plusp))
(defun %bignum-0-or-plusp (bignum len)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type bignum-index len))
  (%digit-0-or-plusp (%bignum-ref bignum (1- len))))

;;; This should be in assembler, and should not cons intermediate
;;; results. It returns a bignum digit and a carry resulting from adding
;;; together a, b, and an incoming carry.
(defun %add-with-carry (a b carry)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type a b)
           (type (mod 2) carry))
  (%add-with-carry a b carry))

;;; This should be in assembler, and should not cons intermediate
;;; results. It returns a bignum digit and a borrow resulting from
;;; subtracting b from a, and subtracting a possible incoming borrow.
;;;
;;; We really do:  a - b - 1 + borrow, where borrow is either 0 or 1.
(defun %subtract-with-borrow (a b borrow)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type a b)
           (type (mod 2) borrow))
  (%subtract-with-borrow a b borrow))

;;; Multiply two digit-size numbers, returning a 2*digit-size result
;;; split into two digit-size quantities.
(defun %multiply (x y)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type x y))
  (%multiply x y))

;;; This multiplies x-digit and y-digit, producing high and low digits
;;; manifesting the result. Then it adds the low digit, res-digit, and
;;; carry-in-digit. Any carries (note, you still have to add two digits
;;; at a time possibly producing two carries) from adding these three
;;; digits get added to the high digit from the multiply, producing the
;;; next carry digit.  Res-digit is optional since two uses of this
;;; primitive multiplies a single digit bignum by a multiple digit
;;; bignum, and in this situation there is no need for a result buffer
;;; accumulating partial results which is where the res-digit comes
;;; from.
(defun %multiply-and-add (x-digit y-digit carry-in-digit
                          &optional (res-digit 0))
  (declare (type bignum-element-type x-digit y-digit res-digit carry-in-digit))
  (%multiply-and-add x-digit y-digit carry-in-digit res-digit))

(defun %lognot (digit)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type digit))
  (%lognot digit))

;;; Each of these does the digit-size unsigned op.
(declaim (inline %logand %logior %logxor))
(defun %logand (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type a b))
  (logand a b))
(defun %logior (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type a b))
  (logior a b))
(defun %logxor (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type a b))
  (logxor a b))

;;; This takes a fixnum and sets it up as an unsigned digit-size
;;; quantity.
(defun %fixnum-to-digit (x)
  (declare (fixnum x))
  (logand x (1- (ash 1 digit-size))))

#!-32x16-divide
;;; This takes three digits and returns the FLOOR'ed result of
;;; dividing the first two as a 2*digit-size integer by the third.
;;;
;;; Do weird LET and SETQ stuff to bamboozle the compiler into allowing
;;; the %BIGFLOOR transform to expand into pseudo-assembler for which the
;;; compiler can later correctly allocate registers.
(defun %bigfloor (a b c)
  (let ((a a) (b b) (c c))
    (declare (type bignum-element-type a b c))
    (setq a a b b c c)
    (%bigfloor a b c)))

;;; Convert the digit to a regular integer assuming that the digit is signed.
(defun %fixnum-digit-with-correct-sign (digit)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type digit))
  (if (logbitp (1- digit-size) digit)
      (logior digit (ash -1 digit-size))
      digit))

;;; Do an arithmetic shift right of data even though bignum-element-type is
;;; unsigned.
(defun %ashr (data count)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type data)
           (type (mod #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) count))
  (%ashr data count))

;;; This takes a digit-size quantity and shifts it to the left,
;;; returning a digit-size quantity.
(defun %ashl (data count)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type data)
           (type (mod #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) count))
  (%ashl data count))

;;; Do an unsigned (logical) right shift of a digit by Count.
(defun %digit-logical-shift-right (data count)
  (declare (type bignum-element-type data)
           (type (mod #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) count))
  (%digit-logical-shift-right data count))

;;; Change the length of bignum to be newlen. Newlen must be the same or
;;; smaller than the old length, and any elements beyond newlen must be zeroed.
(defun %bignum-set-length (bignum newlen)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type bignum-index newlen))
  (%bignum-set-length bignum newlen))

;;; This returns 0 or "-1" depending on whether the bignum is positive. This
;;; is suitable for infinite sign extension to complete additions,
;;; subtractions, negations, etc. This cannot return a -1 represented as
;;; a negative fixnum since it would then have to low zeros.
#!-sb-fluid (declaim (inline %sign-digit))
(defun %sign-digit (bignum len)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type bignum-index len))
  (%ashr (%bignum-ref bignum (1- len)) (1- digit-size)))

;;; These take two digit-size quantities and compare or contrast them
;;; without wasting time with incorrect type checking.
(declaim (inline %digit-compare %digit-greater))
(defun %digit-compare (x y)
  (= x y))
(defun %digit-greater (x y)
  (> x y))

(declaim (optimize (speed 3) (safety 0)))

;;;; addition

(defun add-bignums (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
        (len-b (%bignum-length b)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
    (multiple-value-bind (a len-a b len-b)
        (if (> len-a len-b)
            (values a len-a b len-b)
            (values b len-b a len-a))
      (declare (type bignum-type a b)
               (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
      (let* ((len-res (1+ len-a))
             (res (%allocate-bignum len-res))
             (carry 0))
        (declare (type bignum-index len-res)
                 (type bignum-type res)
                 (type (mod 2) carry))
        (dotimes (i len-b)
          (declare (type bignum-index i))
          (multiple-value-bind (v k)
              (%add-with-carry (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i) carry)
            (declare (type bignum-element-type v)
                     (type (mod 2) k))
            (setf (%bignum-ref res i) v)
            (setf carry k)))
        (if (/= len-a len-b)
            (finish-add a res carry (%sign-digit b len-b) len-b len-a)
            (setf (%bignum-ref res len-a)
                  (%add-with-carry (%sign-digit a len-a)
                                   (%sign-digit b len-b)
                                   carry)))
        (%normalize-bignum res len-res)))))

;;; This takes the longer of two bignums and propagates the carry through its
;;; remaining high order digits.
(defun finish-add (a res carry sign-digit-b start end)
  (declare (type bignum-type a res)
           (type (mod 2) carry)
           (type bignum-element-type sign-digit-b)
           (type bignum-index start end))
  (do ((i start (1+ i)))
      ((= i end)
       (setf (%bignum-ref res end)
             (%add-with-carry (%sign-digit a end) sign-digit-b carry)))
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (multiple-value-bind (v k)
        (%add-with-carry (%bignum-ref a i) sign-digit-b carry)
      (setf (%bignum-ref res i) v)
      (setf carry k)))
  (values))

;;;; subtraction

(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :execute)

;;; This subtracts b from a plugging result into res. Return-fun is the
;;; function to call that fixes up the result returning any useful values, such
;;; as the result. This macro may evaluate its arguments more than once.
(sb!xc:defmacro subtract-bignum-loop (a len-a b len-b res len-res return-fun)
  (with-unique-names (borrow a-digit a-sign b-digit b-sign i v k)
    `(let* ((,borrow 1)
            (,a-sign (%sign-digit ,a ,len-a))
            (,b-sign (%sign-digit ,b ,len-b)))
       (declare (type bignum-element-type ,a-sign ,b-sign))
       (dotimes (,i ,len-res)
         (declare (type bignum-index ,i))
         (let ((,a-digit (if (< ,i ,len-a) (%bignum-ref ,a ,i) ,a-sign))
               (,b-digit (if (< ,i ,len-b) (%bignum-ref ,b ,i) ,b-sign)))
           (declare (type bignum-element-type ,a-digit ,b-digit))
           (multiple-value-bind (,v ,k)
               (%subtract-with-borrow ,a-digit ,b-digit ,borrow)
             (setf (%bignum-ref ,res ,i) ,v)
             (setf ,borrow ,k))))
       (,return-fun ,res ,len-res))))

) ;EVAL-WHEN

(defun subtract-bignum (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let* ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
         (len-b (%bignum-length b))
         (len-res (1+ (max len-a len-b)))
         (res (%allocate-bignum len-res)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b len-res)) ;Test len-res for bounds?
    (subtract-bignum-loop a len-a b len-b res len-res %normalize-bignum)))

;;; Operations requiring a subtraction without the overhead of intermediate
;;; results, such as GCD, use this. It assumes Result is big enough for the
;;; result.
(defun subtract-bignum-buffers-with-len (a len-a b len-b result len-res)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b result)
           (type bignum-index len-a len-b len-res))
  (subtract-bignum-loop a len-a b len-b result len-res
                        %normalize-bignum-buffer))

(defun subtract-bignum-buffers (a len-a b len-b result)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b result)
           (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
  (subtract-bignum-loop a len-a b len-b result (max len-a len-b)
                        %normalize-bignum-buffer))

;;;; multiplication

(defun multiply-bignums (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let* ((a-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp a (%bignum-length a)))
         (b-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp b (%bignum-length b)))
         (a (if a-plusp a (negate-bignum a)))
         (b (if b-plusp b (negate-bignum b)))
         (len-a (%bignum-length a))
         (len-b (%bignum-length b))
         (len-res (+ len-a len-b))
         (res (%allocate-bignum len-res))
         (negate-res (not (eq a-plusp b-plusp))))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b len-res))
    (dotimes (i len-a)
      (declare (type bignum-index i))
      (let ((carry-digit 0)
            (x (%bignum-ref a i))
            (k i))
        (declare (type bignum-index k)
                 (type bignum-element-type carry-digit x))
        (dotimes (j len-b)
          (multiple-value-bind (big-carry res-digit)
              (%multiply-and-add x
                                 (%bignum-ref b j)
                                 (%bignum-ref res k)
                                 carry-digit)
            (declare (type bignum-element-type big-carry res-digit))
            (setf (%bignum-ref res k) res-digit)
            (setf carry-digit big-carry)
            (incf k)))
        (setf (%bignum-ref res k) carry-digit)))
    (when negate-res (negate-bignum-in-place res))
    (%normalize-bignum res len-res)))

(defun multiply-bignum-and-fixnum (bignum fixnum)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum) (type fixnum fixnum))
  (let* ((bignum-plus-p (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum (%bignum-length bignum)))
         (fixnum-plus-p (not (minusp fixnum)))
         (bignum (if bignum-plus-p bignum (negate-bignum bignum)))
         (bignum-len (%bignum-length bignum))
         (fixnum (if fixnum-plus-p fixnum (- fixnum)))
         (result (%allocate-bignum (1+ bignum-len)))
         (carry-digit 0))
    (declare (type bignum-type bignum result)
             (type bignum-index bignum-len)
             (type bignum-element-type fixnum carry-digit))
    (dotimes (index bignum-len)
      (declare (type bignum-index index))
      (multiple-value-bind (next-digit low)
          (%multiply-and-add (%bignum-ref bignum index) fixnum carry-digit)
        (declare (type bignum-element-type next-digit low))
        (setf carry-digit next-digit)
        (setf (%bignum-ref result index) low)))
    (setf (%bignum-ref result bignum-len) carry-digit)
    (unless (eq bignum-plus-p fixnum-plus-p)
      (negate-bignum-in-place result))
    (%normalize-bignum result (1+ bignum-len))))

(defun multiply-fixnums (a b)
  (declare (fixnum a b))
  (let* ((a-minusp (minusp a))
         (b-minusp (minusp b)))
    (multiple-value-bind (high low)
        (%multiply (if a-minusp (- a) a)
                   (if b-minusp (- b) b))
      (declare (type bignum-element-type high low))
      (if (and (zerop high)
               (%digit-0-or-plusp low))
          (let ((low (sb!ext:truly-the (unsigned-byte #.(1- sb!vm:n-word-bits))
                                       (%fixnum-digit-with-correct-sign low))))
            (if (eq a-minusp b-minusp)
                low
                (- low)))
          (let ((res (%allocate-bignum 2)))
            (%bignum-set res 0 low)
            (%bignum-set res 1 high)
            (unless (eq a-minusp b-minusp) (negate-bignum-in-place res))
            (%normalize-bignum res 2))))))

;;;; BIGNUM-REPLACE and WITH-BIGNUM-BUFFERS

(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :execute)

(sb!xc:defmacro bignum-replace (dest
                                src
                                &key
                                (start1 '0)
                                end1
                                (start2 '0)
                                end2
                                from-end)
  (sb!int:once-only ((n-dest dest)
                     (n-src src))
    (with-unique-names (n-start1 n-end1 n-start2 n-end2 i1 i2)
      (let ((end1 (or end1 `(%bignum-length ,n-dest)))
            (end2 (or end2 `(%bignum-length ,n-src))))
        (if from-end
            `(let ((,n-start1 ,start1)
                   (,n-start2 ,start2))
              (do ((,i1 (1- ,end1) (1- ,i1))
                   (,i2 (1- ,end2) (1- ,i2)))
                  ((or (< ,i1 ,n-start1) (< ,i2 ,n-start2)))
                (declare (fixnum ,i1 ,i2))
                (%bignum-set ,n-dest ,i1 (%bignum-ref ,n-src ,i2))))
            (if (eql start1 start2)
                `(let ((,n-end1 (min ,end1 ,end2)))
                  (do ((,i1 ,start1 (1+ ,i1)))
                      ((>= ,i1 ,n-end1))
                    (declare (type bignum-index ,i1))
                    (%bignum-set ,n-dest ,i1 (%bignum-ref ,n-src ,i1))))
                `(let ((,n-end1 ,end1)
                       (,n-end2 ,end2))
                  (do ((,i1 ,start1 (1+ ,i1))
                       (,i2 ,start2 (1+ ,i2)))
                      ((or (>= ,i1 ,n-end1) (>= ,i2 ,n-end2)))
                    (declare (type bignum-index ,i1 ,i2))
                    (%bignum-set ,n-dest ,i1 (%bignum-ref ,n-src ,i2))))))))))

(sb!xc:defmacro with-bignum-buffers (specs &body body)
  #!+sb-doc
  "WITH-BIGNUM-BUFFERS ({(var size [init])}*) Form*"
  (sb!int:collect ((binds)
                   (inits))
    (dolist (spec specs)
      (let ((name (first spec))
            (size (second spec)))
        (binds `(,name (%allocate-bignum ,size)))
        (let ((init (third spec)))
          (when init
            (inits `(bignum-replace ,name ,init))))))
    `(let* ,(binds)
       ,@(inits)
       ,@body)))

) ;EVAL-WHEN

;;;; GCD

(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :load-toplevel :execute)
  ;; The asserts in the GCD implementation are way too expensive to
  ;; check in normal use, and are disabled here.
  (sb!xc:defmacro gcd-assert (&rest args)
    (if nil
        `(assert ,@args)))
  ;; We'll be doing a lot of modular arithmetic.
  (sb!xc:defmacro modularly (form)
    `(logand all-ones-digit ,form)))

;;; I'm not sure why I need this FTYPE declaration.  Compiled by the
;;; target compiler, it can deduce the return type fine, but without
;;; it, we pay a heavy price in BIGNUM-GCD when compiled by the
;;; cross-compiler. -- CSR, 2004-07-19
(declaim (ftype (sfunction (bignum-type bignum-index bignum-type bignum-index)
                           (and unsigned-byte fixnum))
                bignum-factors-of-two))
(defun bignum-factors-of-two (a len-a b len-b)
  (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b) (type bignum-type a b))
  (do ((i 0 (1+ i))
       (end (min len-a len-b)))
      ((= i end) (error "Unexpected zero bignums?"))
    (declare (type bignum-index i end))
    (let ((or-digits (%logior (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i))))
      (unless (zerop or-digits)
        (return (do ((j 0 (1+ j))
                     (or-digits or-digits (%ashr or-digits 1)))
                    ((oddp or-digits) (+ (* i digit-size) j))
                  (declare (type (mod #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) j))))))))

;;; Multiply a bignum buffer with a fixnum or a digit, storing the
;;; result in another bignum buffer, and without using any
;;; temporaries. Inlined to avoid boxing smallnum if it's actually a
;;; digit. Needed by GCD, should possibly OAOO with
;;; MULTIPLY-BIGNUM-AND-FIXNUM.
(declaim (inline multiply-bignum-buffer-and-smallnum-to-buffer))
(defun multiply-bignum-buffer-and-smallnum-to-buffer (bignum bignum-len
                                                             smallnum res)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (let* ((bignum-plus-p (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum bignum-len))
         (smallnum-plus-p (not (minusp smallnum)))
         (smallnum (if smallnum-plus-p smallnum (- smallnum)))
         (carry-digit 0))
    (declare (type bignum-type bignum res)
             (type bignum-index bignum-len)
             (type bignum-element-type smallnum carry-digit))
    (unless bignum-plus-p
      (negate-bignum-buffer-in-place bignum bignum-len))
    (dotimes (index bignum-len)
      (declare (type bignum-index index))
      (multiple-value-bind (next-digit low)
          (%multiply-and-add (%bignum-ref bignum index)
                             smallnum
                             carry-digit)
        (declare (type bignum-element-type next-digit low))
        (setf carry-digit next-digit)
        (setf (%bignum-ref res index) low)))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res bignum-len) carry-digit)
    (unless bignum-plus-p
      (negate-bignum-buffer-in-place bignum bignum-len))
    (let ((res-len (%normalize-bignum-buffer res (1+ bignum-len))))
      (unless (eq bignum-plus-p smallnum-plus-p)
        (negate-bignum-buffer-in-place res res-len))
      res-len)))

;;; Given U and V, return U / V mod 2^32. Implements the algorithm in the
;;; paper, but uses some clever bit-twiddling nicked from Nickle to do it.
(declaim (inline bmod))
(defun bmod (u v)
  (let ((ud (%bignum-ref u 0))
        (vd (%bignum-ref v 0))
        (umask 0)
        (imask 1)
        (m 0))
    (declare (type (unsigned-byte #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) ud vd umask imask m))
    (dotimes (i digit-size)
      (setf umask (logior umask imask))
      (when (logtest ud umask)
        (setf ud (modularly (- ud vd)))
        (setf m (modularly (logior m imask))))
      (setf imask (modularly (ash imask 1)))
      (setf vd (modularly (ash vd 1))))
    m))

(defun dmod (u u-len v v-len tmp1)
  (loop while (> (bignum-buffer-integer-length u u-len)
                 (+ (bignum-buffer-integer-length v v-len)
                    digit-size))
    do
    (unless (zerop (%bignum-ref u 0))
      (let* ((bmod (bmod u v))
             (tmp1-len (multiply-bignum-buffer-and-smallnum-to-buffer v v-len
                                                                      bmod
                                                                      tmp1)))
        (setf u-len (subtract-bignum-buffers u u-len
                                             tmp1 tmp1-len
                                             u))
        (bignum-abs-buffer u u-len)))
    (gcd-assert (zerop (%bignum-ref u 0)))
    (setf u-len (bignum-buffer-ashift-right u u-len digit-size)))
  (let* ((d (+ 1 (- (bignum-buffer-integer-length u u-len)
                    (bignum-buffer-integer-length v v-len))))
         (n (1- (ash 1 d))))
    (declare (type (unsigned-byte #.(integer-length #.sb!vm:n-word-bits)) d)
             (type (unsigned-byte #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) n))
    (gcd-assert (>= d 0))
    (when (logtest (%bignum-ref u 0) n)
      (let ((tmp1-len
             (multiply-bignum-buffer-and-smallnum-to-buffer v v-len
                                                            (logand n (bmod u
                                                                            v))
                                                            tmp1)))
        (setf u-len (subtract-bignum-buffers u u-len
                                             tmp1 tmp1-len
                                             u))
        (bignum-abs-buffer u u-len)))
    u-len))

(defconstant lower-ones-digit (1- (ash 1 (truncate sb!vm:n-word-bits 2))))

;;; Find D and N such that (LOGAND ALL-ONES-DIGIT (- (* D X) (* N Y))) is 0,
;;; (< 0 N LOWER-ONES-DIGIT) and (< 0 (ABS D) LOWER-ONES-DIGIT).
(defun reduced-ratio-mod (x y)
  (let* ((c (bmod x y))
         (n1 c)
         (d1 1)
         (n2 (modularly (1+ (modularly (lognot n1)))))
         (d2 (modularly -1)))
    (declare (type (unsigned-byte #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) n1 d1 n2 d2))
    (loop while (> n2 (expt 2 (truncate digit-size 2))) do
          (loop for i of-type (mod #.sb!vm:n-word-bits)
                downfrom (- (integer-length n1) (integer-length n2))
                while (>= n1 n2) do
                (when (>= n1 (modularly (ash n2 i)))
                  (psetf n1 (modularly (- n1 (modularly (ash n2 i))))
                         d1 (modularly (- d1 (modularly (ash d2 i)))))))
          (psetf n1 n2
                 d1 d2
                 n2 n1
                 d2 d1))
    (values n2 (if (>= d2 (expt 2 (1- digit-size)))
                   (lognot (logand most-positive-fixnum (lognot d2)))
                   (logand lower-ones-digit d2)))))


(defun copy-bignum (a &optional (len (%bignum-length a)))
  (let ((b (%allocate-bignum len)))
    (bignum-replace b a)
    (%bignum-set-length b len)
    b))

;;; Allocate a single word bignum that holds fixnum. This is useful when
;;; we are trying to mix fixnum and bignum operands.
#!-sb-fluid (declaim (inline make-small-bignum))
(defun make-small-bignum (fixnum)
  (let ((res (%allocate-bignum 1)))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res 0) (%fixnum-to-digit fixnum))
    res))

;; When the larger number is less than this many bignum digits long, revert
;; to old algorithm.
(defparameter *accelerated-gcd-cutoff* 3)

;;; Alternate between k-ary reduction with the help of
;;; REDUCED-RATIO-MOD and digit modulus reduction via DMOD. Once the
;;; arguments get small enough, drop through to BIGNUM-MOD-GCD (since
;;; k-ary reduction can introduce spurious factors, which need to be
;;; filtered out). Reference: Kenneth Weber, "The accelerated integer
;;; GCD algorithm", ACM Transactions on Mathematical Software, volume
;;; 21, number 1, March 1995, epp. 111-122.
(defun bignum-gcd (u0 v0)
  (declare (type bignum-type u0 v0))
  (let* ((u1 (if (%bignum-0-or-plusp u0 (%bignum-length u0))
                 u0
                 (negate-bignum u0 nil)))
         (v1 (if (%bignum-0-or-plusp v0 (%bignum-length v0))
                 v0
                 (negate-bignum v0 nil))))
    (if (zerop v1)
        (return-from bignum-gcd u1))
    (when (> u1 v1)
      (rotatef u1 v1))
    (let ((n (mod v1 u1)))
      (setf v1 (if (fixnump n)
                   (make-small-bignum n)
                   n)))
    (if (and (= 1 (%bignum-length v1))
             (zerop (%bignum-ref v1 0)))
        (return-from bignum-gcd (%normalize-bignum u1
                                                   (%bignum-length u1))))
    (let* ((buffer-len (+ 2 (%bignum-length u1)))
           (u (%allocate-bignum buffer-len))
           (u-len (%bignum-length u1))
           (v (%allocate-bignum buffer-len))
           (v-len (%bignum-length v1))
           (tmp1 (%allocate-bignum buffer-len))
           (tmp1-len 0)
           (tmp2 (%allocate-bignum buffer-len))
           (tmp2-len 0)
           (factors-of-two
            (bignum-factors-of-two u1 (%bignum-length u1)
                                   v1 (%bignum-length v1))))
      (declare (type (or null bignum-index)
                     buffer-len u-len v-len tmp1-len tmp2-len))
      (bignum-replace u u1)
      (bignum-replace v v1)
      (setf u-len
            (make-gcd-bignum-odd u
                                 (bignum-buffer-ashift-right u u-len
                                                             factors-of-two)))
      (setf v-len
            (make-gcd-bignum-odd v
                                 (bignum-buffer-ashift-right v v-len
                                                             factors-of-two)))
      (loop until (or (< u-len *accelerated-gcd-cutoff*)
                      (not v-len)
                      (zerop v-len)
                      (and (= 1 v-len)
                           (zerop (%bignum-ref v 0))))
        do
        (gcd-assert (= buffer-len (%bignum-length u)
                       (%bignum-length v)
                       (%bignum-length tmp1)
                       (%bignum-length tmp2)))
        (if (> (bignum-buffer-integer-length u u-len)
               (+ #.(truncate sb!vm:n-word-bits 4)
                  (bignum-buffer-integer-length v v-len)))
            (setf u-len (dmod u u-len
                              v v-len
                              tmp1))
            (multiple-value-bind (n d) (reduced-ratio-mod u v)
              (setf tmp1-len
                    (multiply-bignum-buffer-and-smallnum-to-buffer v v-len
                                                                   n tmp1))
              (setf tmp2-len
                    (multiply-bignum-buffer-and-smallnum-to-buffer u u-len
                                                                   d tmp2))
              (gcd-assert (= (copy-bignum tmp2 tmp2-len)
                             (* (copy-bignum u u-len) d)))
              (gcd-assert (= (copy-bignum tmp1 tmp1-len)
                             (* (copy-bignum v v-len) n)))
              (setf u-len
                    (subtract-bignum-buffers-with-len tmp1 tmp1-len
                                                      tmp2 tmp2-len
                                                      u
                                                      (1+ (max tmp1-len
                                                               tmp2-len))))
              (gcd-assert (or (zerop (- (copy-bignum tmp1 tmp1-len)
                                        (copy-bignum tmp2 tmp2-len)))
                              (= (copy-bignum u u-len)
                                 (- (copy-bignum tmp1 tmp1-len)
                                    (copy-bignum tmp2 tmp2-len)))))
              (bignum-abs-buffer u u-len)
              (gcd-assert (zerop (modularly u)))))
        (setf u-len (make-gcd-bignum-odd u u-len))
        (rotatef u v)
        (rotatef u-len v-len))
      (bignum-abs-buffer u u-len)
      (setf u (copy-bignum u u-len))
      (let ((n (bignum-mod-gcd v1 u)))
        (ash (bignum-mod-gcd u1 (if (fixnump n)
                                    (make-small-bignum n)
                                    n))
             factors-of-two)))))

(defun bignum-mod-gcd (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (when (< a b)
    (rotatef a b))
  ;; While the length difference of A and B is sufficiently large,
  ;; reduce using MOD (slowish, but it should equalize the sizes of
  ;; A and B pretty quickly). After that, use the binary GCD
  ;; algorithm to handle the rest.
  (loop until (and (= (%bignum-length b) 1) (zerop (%bignum-ref b 0))) do
        (when (<= (%bignum-length a) (1+ (%bignum-length b)))
          (return-from bignum-mod-gcd (bignum-binary-gcd a b)))
        (let ((rem (mod a b)))
          (if (fixnump rem)
              (setf a (make-small-bignum rem))
              (setf a rem))
          (rotatef a b)))
  (if (= (%bignum-length a) 1)
      (%normalize-bignum a 1)
      a))

(defun bignum-binary-gcd (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let* ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
         (len-b (%bignum-length b)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
    (with-bignum-buffers ((a-buffer len-a a)
                          (b-buffer len-b b)
                          (res-buffer (max len-a len-b)))
      (let* ((factors-of-two
              (bignum-factors-of-two a-buffer len-a
                                     b-buffer len-b))
             (len-a (make-gcd-bignum-odd
                     a-buffer
                     (bignum-buffer-ashift-right a-buffer len-a
                                                 factors-of-two)))
             (len-b (make-gcd-bignum-odd
                     b-buffer
                     (bignum-buffer-ashift-right b-buffer len-b
                                                 factors-of-two))))
        (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
        (let ((x a-buffer)
              (len-x len-a)
              (y b-buffer)
              (len-y len-b)
              (z res-buffer))
          (loop
            (multiple-value-bind (u v len-v r len-r)
                (bignum-gcd-order-and-subtract x len-x y len-y z)
              (declare (type bignum-index len-v len-r))
              (when (and (= len-r 1) (zerop (%bignum-ref r 0)))
                (if (zerop factors-of-two)
                    (let ((ret (%allocate-bignum len-v)))
                      (dotimes (i len-v)
                        (setf (%bignum-ref ret i) (%bignum-ref v i)))
                      (return (%normalize-bignum ret len-v)))
                    (return (bignum-ashift-left v factors-of-two len-v))))
              (setf x v  len-x len-v)
              (setf y r  len-y (make-gcd-bignum-odd r len-r))
              (setf z u))))))))

(defun bignum-gcd-order-and-subtract (a len-a b len-b res)
  (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b) (type bignum-type a b))
  (cond ((= len-a len-b)
         (do ((i (1- len-a) (1- i)))
             ((= i -1)
              (setf (%bignum-ref res 0) 0)
              (values a b len-b res 1))
           (let ((a-digit (%bignum-ref a i))
                 (b-digit (%bignum-ref b i)))
             (cond ((%digit-compare a-digit b-digit))
                   ((%digit-greater a-digit b-digit)
                    (return
                     (values a b len-b res
                             (subtract-bignum-buffers a len-a b len-b
                                                      res))))
                   (t
                    (return
                     (values b a len-a res
                             (subtract-bignum-buffers b len-b
                                                      a len-a
                                                      res))))))))
        ((> len-a len-b)
         (values a b len-b res
                 (subtract-bignum-buffers a len-a b len-b res)))
        (t
         (values b a len-a res
                 (subtract-bignum-buffers b len-b a len-a res)))))

(defun make-gcd-bignum-odd (a len-a)
  (declare (type bignum-type a) (type bignum-index len-a))
  (dotimes (index len-a)
    (declare (type bignum-index index))
    (do ((digit (%bignum-ref a index) (%ashr digit 1))
         (increment 0 (1+ increment)))
        ((zerop digit))
      (declare (type (mod #.sb!vm:n-word-bits) increment))
      (when (oddp digit)
        (return-from make-gcd-bignum-odd
                     (bignum-buffer-ashift-right a len-a
                                                 (+ (* index digit-size)
                                                    increment)))))))


;;;; negation

(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :execute)

;;; This negates bignum-len digits of bignum, storing the resulting digits into
;;; result (possibly EQ to bignum) and returning whatever end-carry there is.
(sb!xc:defmacro bignum-negate-loop
    (bignum bignum-len &optional (result nil resultp))
  (with-unique-names (carry end value last)
    `(let* (,@(if (not resultp) `(,last))
            (,carry
             (multiple-value-bind (,value ,carry)
                 (%add-with-carry (%lognot (%bignum-ref ,bignum 0)) 1 0)
               ,(if resultp
                    `(setf (%bignum-ref ,result 0) ,value)
                    `(setf ,last ,value))
               ,carry))
            (i 1)
            (,end ,bignum-len))
       (declare (type bit ,carry)
                (type bignum-index i ,end))
       (loop
         (when (= i ,end) (return))
         (multiple-value-bind (,value temp)
             (%add-with-carry (%lognot (%bignum-ref ,bignum i)) 0 ,carry)
           ,(if resultp
                `(setf (%bignum-ref ,result i) ,value)
                `(setf ,last ,value))
           (setf ,carry temp))
         (incf i))
       ,(if resultp carry `(values ,carry ,last)))))

) ; EVAL-WHEN

;;; Fully-normalize is an internal optional. It cause this to always return
;;; a bignum, without any extraneous digits, and it never returns a fixnum.
(defun negate-bignum (x &optional (fully-normalize t))
  (declare (type bignum-type x))
  (let* ((len-x (%bignum-length x))
         (len-res (1+ len-x))
         (res (%allocate-bignum len-res)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-x len-res)) ;Test len-res for range?
    (let ((carry (bignum-negate-loop x len-x res)))
      (setf (%bignum-ref res len-x)
            (%add-with-carry (%lognot (%sign-digit x len-x)) 0 carry)))
    (if fully-normalize
        (%normalize-bignum res len-res)
        (%mostly-normalize-bignum res len-res))))

;;; This assumes bignum is positive; that is, the result of negating it will
;;; stay in the provided allocated bignum.
(defun negate-bignum-buffer-in-place (bignum bignum-len)
  (bignum-negate-loop bignum bignum-len bignum)
  bignum)

(defun negate-bignum-in-place (bignum)
  (declare (inline negate-bignum-buffer-in-place))
  (negate-bignum-buffer-in-place bignum (%bignum-length bignum)))

(defun bignum-abs-buffer (bignum len)
  (unless (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum len)
    (negate-bignum-buffer-in-place bignum len)))

;;;; shifting

(eval-when (:compile-toplevel :execute)

;;; This macro is used by BIGNUM-ASHIFT-RIGHT, BIGNUM-BUFFER-ASHIFT-RIGHT, and
;;; BIGNUM-LDB-BIGNUM-RES. They supply a termination form that references
;;; locals established by this form. Source is the source bignum. Start-digit
;;; is the first digit in source from which we pull bits. Start-pos is the
;;; first bit we want. Res-len-form is the form that computes the length of
;;; the resulting bignum. Termination is a DO termination form with a test and
;;; body. When result is supplied, it is the variable to which this binds a
;;; newly allocated bignum.
;;;
;;; Given start-pos, 1-31 inclusively, of shift, we form the j'th resulting
;;; digit from high bits of the i'th source digit and the start-pos number of
;;; bits from the i+1'th source digit.
(sb!xc:defmacro shift-right-unaligned (source
                                       start-digit
                                       start-pos
                                       res-len-form
                                       termination
                                       &optional result)
  `(let* ((high-bits-in-first-digit (- digit-size ,start-pos))
          (res-len ,res-len-form)
          (res-len-1 (1- res-len))
          ,@(if result `((,result (%allocate-bignum res-len)))))
     (declare (type bignum-index res-len res-len-1))
     (do ((i ,start-digit (1+ i))
          (j 0 (1+ j)))
         ,termination
       (declare (type bignum-index i j))
       (setf (%bignum-ref ,(if result result source) j)
             (%logior (%digit-logical-shift-right (%bignum-ref ,source i)
                                                  ,start-pos)
                      (%ashl (%bignum-ref ,source (1+ i))
                             high-bits-in-first-digit))))))

) ; EVAL-WHEN

;;; First compute the number of whole digits to shift, shifting them by
;;; skipping them when we start to pick up bits, and the number of bits to
;;; shift the remaining digits into place. If the number of digits is greater
;;; than the length of the bignum, then the result is either 0 or -1. If we
;;; shift on a digit boundary (that is, n-bits is zero), then we just copy
;;; digits. The last branch handles the general case which uses a macro that a
;;; couple other routines use. The fifth argument to the macro references
;;; locals established by the macro.
(defun bignum-ashift-right (bignum count)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type unsigned-byte count))
  (let ((bignum-len (%bignum-length bignum)))
    (declare (type bignum-index bignum-len))
    (cond ((fixnump count)
           (multiple-value-bind (digits n-bits) (truncate count digit-size)
             (declare (type bignum-index digits))
             (cond
              ((>= digits bignum-len)
               (if (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum bignum-len) 0 -1))
              ((zerop n-bits)
               (bignum-ashift-right-digits bignum digits))
              (t
               (shift-right-unaligned bignum digits n-bits (- bignum-len digits)
                                      ((= j res-len-1)
                                       (setf (%bignum-ref res j)
                                             (%ashr (%bignum-ref bignum i) n-bits))
                                       (%normalize-bignum res res-len))
                                      res)))))
          ((> count bignum-len)
           (if (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum bignum-len) 0 -1))
           ;; Since a FIXNUM should be big enough to address anything in
           ;; memory, including arrays of bits, and since arrays of bits
           ;; take up about the same space as corresponding fixnums, there
           ;; should be no way that we fall through to this case: any shift
           ;; right by a bignum should give zero. But let's check anyway:
          (t (error "bignum overflow: can't shift right by ~S" count)))))

(defun bignum-ashift-right-digits (bignum digits)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type bignum-index digits))
  (let* ((res-len (- (%bignum-length bignum) digits))
         (res (%allocate-bignum res-len)))
    (declare (type bignum-index res-len)
             (type bignum-type res))
    (bignum-replace res bignum :start2 digits)
    (%normalize-bignum res res-len)))

;;; GCD uses this for an in-place shifting operation. This is different enough
;;; from BIGNUM-ASHIFT-RIGHT that it isn't worth folding the bodies into a
;;; macro, but they share the basic algorithm. This routine foregoes a first
;;; test for digits being greater than or equal to bignum-len since that will
;;; never happen for its uses in GCD. We did fold the last branch into a macro
;;; since it was duplicated a few times, and the fifth argument to it
;;; references locals established by the macro.
(defun bignum-buffer-ashift-right (bignum bignum-len x)
  (declare (type bignum-index bignum-len) (fixnum x))
  (multiple-value-bind (digits n-bits) (truncate x digit-size)
    (declare (type bignum-index digits))
    (cond
     ((zerop n-bits)
      (let ((new-end (- bignum-len digits)))
        (bignum-replace bignum bignum :end1 new-end :start2 digits
                        :end2 bignum-len)
        (%normalize-bignum-buffer bignum new-end)))
     (t
      (shift-right-unaligned bignum digits n-bits (- bignum-len digits)
                             ((= j res-len-1)
                              (setf (%bignum-ref bignum j)
                                    (%ashr (%bignum-ref bignum i) n-bits))
                              (%normalize-bignum-buffer bignum res-len)))))))

;;; This handles shifting a bignum buffer to provide fresh bignum data for some
;;; internal routines. We know bignum is safe when called with bignum-len.
;;; First we compute the number of whole digits to shift, shifting them
;;; starting to store farther along the result bignum. If we shift on a digit
;;; boundary (that is, n-bits is zero), then we just copy digits. The last
;;; branch handles the general case.
(defun bignum-ashift-left (bignum x &optional bignum-len)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum)
           (type unsigned-byte x)
           (type (or null bignum-index) bignum-len))
  (if (fixnump x)
    (multiple-value-bind (digits n-bits) (truncate x digit-size)
      (let* ((bignum-len (or bignum-len (%bignum-length bignum)))
             (res-len (+ digits bignum-len 1)))
        (when (> res-len maximum-bignum-length)
          (error "can't represent result of left shift"))
        (if (zerop n-bits)
          (bignum-ashift-left-digits bignum bignum-len digits)
          (bignum-ashift-left-unaligned bignum digits n-bits res-len))))
    ;; Left shift by a number too big to be represented as a fixnum
    ;; would exceed our memory capacity, since a fixnum is big enough
    ;; to index any array, including a bit array.
    (error "can't represent result of left shift")))

(defun bignum-ashift-left-digits (bignum bignum-len digits)
  (declare (type bignum-index bignum-len digits))
  (let* ((res-len (+ bignum-len digits))
         (res (%allocate-bignum res-len)))
    (declare (type bignum-index res-len))
    (bignum-replace res bignum :start1 digits :end1 res-len :end2 bignum-len
                    :from-end t)
    res))

;;; BIGNUM-TRUNCATE uses this to store into a bignum buffer by supplying res.
;;; When res comes in non-nil, then this foregoes allocating a result, and it
;;; normalizes the buffer instead of the would-be allocated result.
;;;
;;; We start storing into one digit higher than digits, storing a whole result
;;; digit from parts of two contiguous digits from bignum. When the loop
;;; finishes, we store the remaining bits from bignum's first digit in the
;;; first non-zero result digit, digits. We also grab some left over high
;;; bits from the last digit of bignum.
(defun bignum-ashift-left-unaligned (bignum digits n-bits res-len
                                     &optional (res nil resp))
  (declare (type bignum-index digits res-len)
           (type (mod #.digit-size) n-bits))
  (let* ((remaining-bits (- digit-size n-bits))
         (res-len-1 (1- res-len))
         (res (or res (%allocate-bignum res-len))))
    (declare (type bignum-index res-len res-len-1))
    (do ((i 0 (1+ i))
         (j (1+ digits) (1+ j)))
        ((= j res-len-1)
         (setf (%bignum-ref res digits)
               (%ashl (%bignum-ref bignum 0) n-bits))
         (setf (%bignum-ref res j)
               (%ashr (%bignum-ref bignum i) remaining-bits))
         (if resp
             (%normalize-bignum-buffer res res-len)
             (%normalize-bignum res res-len)))
      (declare (type bignum-index i j))
      (setf (%bignum-ref res j)
            (%logior (%digit-logical-shift-right (%bignum-ref bignum i)
                                                 remaining-bits)
                     (%ashl (%bignum-ref bignum (1+ i)) n-bits))))))

;;;; relational operators

;;; Return T iff bignum is positive.
(defun bignum-plus-p (bignum)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum (%bignum-length bignum)))

;;; This compares two bignums returning -1, 0, or 1, depending on
;;; whether a is less than, equal to, or greater than b.
(declaim (ftype (function (bignum bignum) (integer -1 1)) bignum-compare))
(defun bignum-compare (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let* ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
         (len-b (%bignum-length b))
         (a-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp a len-a))
         (b-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp b len-b)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
    (cond ((not (eq a-plusp b-plusp))
           (if a-plusp 1 -1))
          ((= len-a len-b)
           (do ((i (1- len-a) (1- i)))
               (())
             (declare (type bignum-index i))
             (let ((a-digit (%bignum-ref a i))
                   (b-digit (%bignum-ref b i)))
               (declare (type bignum-element-type a-digit b-digit))
               (when (%digit-greater a-digit b-digit)
                 (return 1))
               (when (%digit-greater b-digit a-digit)
                 (return -1)))
             (when (zerop i) (return 0))))
          ((> len-a len-b)
           (if a-plusp 1 -1))
          (t (if a-plusp -1 1)))))

;;;; float conversion

;;; Make a single or double float with the specified significand,
;;; exponent and sign.
(defun single-float-from-bits (bits exp plusp)
  (declare (fixnum exp))
  (declare (optimize #-sb-xc-host (sb!ext:inhibit-warnings 3)))
  (let ((res (dpb exp
                  sb!vm:single-float-exponent-byte
                  (logandc2 (logand #xffffffff
                                    (%bignum-ref bits 1))
                            sb!vm:single-float-hidden-bit))))
    (make-single-float
     (if plusp
         res
         (logior res (ash -1 sb!vm:float-sign-shift))))))
(defun double-float-from-bits (bits exp plusp)
  (declare (fixnum exp))
  (declare (optimize #-sb-xc-host (sb!ext:inhibit-warnings 3)))
  (let ((hi (dpb exp
                 sb!vm:double-float-exponent-byte
                 (logandc2 (ecase sb!vm::n-word-bits
                             (32 (%bignum-ref bits 2))
                             (64 (ash (%bignum-ref bits 1) -32)))
                           sb!vm:double-float-hidden-bit)))
        (lo (logand #xffffffff (%bignum-ref bits 1))))
    (make-double-float (if plusp
                           hi
                           (logior hi (ash -1 sb!vm:float-sign-shift)))
                       lo)))
#!+(and long-float x86)
(defun long-float-from-bits (bits exp plusp)
  (declare (fixnum exp))
  (declare (optimize #-sb-xc-host (sb!ext:inhibit-warnings 3)))
  (make-long-float
   (if plusp
       exp
       (logior exp (ash 1 15)))
   (%bignum-ref bits 2)
   (%bignum-ref bits 1)))

;;; Convert Bignum to a float in the specified Format, rounding to the best
;;; approximation.
(defun bignum-to-float (bignum format)
  (let* ((plusp (bignum-plus-p bignum))
         (x (if plusp bignum (negate-bignum bignum)))
         (len (bignum-integer-length x))
         (digits (float-format-digits format))
         (keep (+ digits digit-size))
         (shift (- keep len))
         (shifted (if (minusp shift)
                      (bignum-ashift-right x (- shift))
                      (bignum-ashift-left x shift)))
         (low (%bignum-ref shifted 0))
         (round-bit (ash 1 (1- digit-size))))
    (declare (type bignum-index len digits keep) (fixnum shift))
    (labels ((round-up ()
               (let ((rounded (add-bignums shifted round-bit)))
                 (if (> (integer-length rounded) keep)
                     (float-from-bits (bignum-ashift-right rounded 1)
                                      (1+ len))
                     (float-from-bits rounded len))))
             (float-from-bits (bits len)
               (declare (type bignum-index len))
               (ecase format
                 (single-float
                  (single-float-from-bits
                   bits
                   (check-exponent len sb!vm:single-float-bias
                                   sb!vm:single-float-normal-exponent-max)
                   plusp))
                 (double-float
                  (double-float-from-bits
                   bits
                   (check-exponent len sb!vm:double-float-bias
                                   sb!vm:double-float-normal-exponent-max)
                   plusp))
                 #!+long-float
                 (long-float
                  (long-float-from-bits
                   bits
                   (check-exponent len sb!vm:long-float-bias
                                   sb!vm:long-float-normal-exponent-max)
                   plusp))))
             (check-exponent (exp bias max)
               (declare (type bignum-index len))
               (let ((exp (+ exp bias)))
                 (when (> exp max)
                   ;; Why a SIMPLE-TYPE-ERROR? Well, this is mainly
                   ;; called by COERCE, which requires an error of
                   ;; TYPE-ERROR if the conversion can't happen
                   ;; (except in certain circumstances when we are
                   ;; coercing to a FUNCTION) -- CSR, 2002-09-18
                   (error 'simple-type-error
                          :format-control "Too large to be represented as a ~S:~%  ~S"
                          :format-arguments (list format x)
                          :expected-type format
                          :datum x))
                 exp)))

    (cond
     ;; Round down if round bit is 0.
     ((not (logtest round-bit low))
      (float-from-bits shifted len))
     ;; If only round bit is set, then round to even.
     ((and (= low round-bit)
           (dotimes (i (- (%bignum-length x) (ceiling keep digit-size))
                       t)
             (unless (zerop (%bignum-ref x i)) (return nil))))
      (let ((next (%bignum-ref shifted 1)))
        (if (oddp next)
            (round-up)
            (float-from-bits shifted len))))
     ;; Otherwise, round up.
     (t
      (round-up))))))

;;;; integer length and logbitp/logcount

(defun bignum-buffer-integer-length (bignum len)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (let* ((len-1 (1- len))
         (digit (%bignum-ref bignum len-1)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len len-1)
             (type bignum-element-type digit))
    (+ (integer-length (%fixnum-digit-with-correct-sign digit))
       (* len-1 digit-size))))

(defun bignum-integer-length (bignum)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (bignum-buffer-integer-length bignum (%bignum-length bignum)))

(defun bignum-logbitp (index bignum)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (let ((len (%bignum-length bignum)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len))
    (multiple-value-bind (word-index bit-index)
        (floor index digit-size)
      (if (>= word-index len)
          (not (bignum-plus-p bignum))
          (logbitp bit-index (%bignum-ref bignum word-index))))))

(defun bignum-logcount (bignum)
  (declare (type bignum-type bignum))
  (let ((length (%bignum-length bignum))
        (result 0))
    (declare (type bignum-index length)
             (fixnum result))
    (do ((index 0 (1+ index)))
        ((= index length)
         (if (%bignum-0-or-plusp bignum length)
             result
             (- (* length digit-size) result)))
      (let ((digit (%bignum-ref bignum index)))
        (declare (type bignum-element-type digit))
        (incf result (logcount digit))))))

;;;; logical operations

;;;; NOT

(defun bignum-logical-not (a)
  (declare (type bignum-type a))
  (let* ((len (%bignum-length a))
         (res (%allocate-bignum len)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len))
    (dotimes (i len res)
      (declare (type bignum-index i))
      (setf (%bignum-ref res i) (%lognot (%bignum-ref a i))))))

;;;; AND

(defun bignum-logical-and (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let* ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
         (len-b (%bignum-length b))
         (a-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp a len-a))
         (b-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp b len-b)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
    (cond
     ((< len-a len-b)
      (if a-plusp
          (logand-shorter-positive a len-a b (%allocate-bignum len-a))
          (logand-shorter-negative a len-a b len-b (%allocate-bignum len-b))))
     ((< len-b len-a)
      (if b-plusp
          (logand-shorter-positive b len-b a (%allocate-bignum len-b))
          (logand-shorter-negative b len-b a len-a (%allocate-bignum len-a))))
     (t (logand-shorter-positive a len-a b (%allocate-bignum len-a))))))

;;; This takes a shorter bignum, a and len-a, that is positive. Because this
;;; is AND, we don't care about any bits longer than a's since its infinite 0
;;; sign bits will mask the other bits out of b. The result is len-a big.
(defun logand-shorter-positive (a len-a b res)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b res)
           (type bignum-index len-a))
  (dotimes (i len-a)
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i)
          (%logand (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i))))
  (%normalize-bignum res len-a))

;;; This takes a shorter bignum, a and len-a, that is negative. Because this
;;; is AND, we just copy any bits longer than a's since its infinite 1 sign
;;; bits will include any bits from b. The result is len-b big.
(defun logand-shorter-negative (a len-a b len-b res)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b res)
           (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
  (dotimes (i len-a)
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i)
          (%logand (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i))))
  (do ((i len-a (1+ i)))
      ((= i len-b))
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i) (%bignum-ref b i)))
  (%normalize-bignum res len-b))

;;;; IOR

(defun bignum-logical-ior (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let* ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
         (len-b (%bignum-length b))
         (a-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp a len-a))
         (b-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp b len-b)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
    (cond
     ((< len-a len-b)
      (if a-plusp
          (logior-shorter-positive a len-a b len-b (%allocate-bignum len-b))
          (logior-shorter-negative a len-a b len-b (%allocate-bignum len-b))))
     ((< len-b len-a)
      (if b-plusp
          (logior-shorter-positive b len-b a len-a (%allocate-bignum len-a))
          (logior-shorter-negative b len-b a len-a (%allocate-bignum len-a))))
     (t (logior-shorter-positive a len-a b len-b (%allocate-bignum len-a))))))

;;; This takes a shorter bignum, a and len-a, that is positive. Because this
;;; is IOR, we don't care about any bits longer than a's since its infinite
;;; 0 sign bits will mask the other bits out of b out to len-b. The result
;;; is len-b long.
(defun logior-shorter-positive (a len-a b len-b res)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b res)
           (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
  (dotimes (i len-a)
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i)
          (%logior (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i))))
  (do ((i len-a (1+ i)))
      ((= i len-b))
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i) (%bignum-ref b i)))
  (%normalize-bignum res len-b))

;;; This takes a shorter bignum, a and len-a, that is negative. Because this
;;; is IOR, we just copy any bits longer than a's since its infinite 1 sign
;;; bits will include any bits from b. The result is len-b long.
(defun logior-shorter-negative (a len-a b len-b res)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b res)
           (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
  (dotimes (i len-a)
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i)
          (%logior (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i))))
  (do ((i len-a (1+ i))
       (sign (%sign-digit a len-a)))
      ((= i len-b))
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i) sign))
  (%normalize-bignum res len-b))

;;;; XOR

(defun bignum-logical-xor (a b)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b))
  (let ((len-a (%bignum-length a))
        (len-b (%bignum-length b)))
    (declare (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
    (if (< len-a len-b)
        (bignum-logical-xor-aux a len-a b len-b (%allocate-bignum len-b))
        (bignum-logical-xor-aux b len-b a len-a (%allocate-bignum len-a)))))

;;; This takes the shorter of two bignums in a and len-a. Res is len-b
;;; long. Do the XOR.
(defun bignum-logical-xor-aux (a len-a b len-b res)
  (declare (type bignum-type a b res)
           (type bignum-index len-a len-b))
  (dotimes (i len-a)
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i)
          (%logxor (%bignum-ref a i) (%bignum-ref b i))))
  (do ((i len-a (1+ i))
       (sign (%sign-digit a len-a)))
      ((= i len-b))
    (declare (type bignum-index i))
    (setf (%bignum-ref res i) (%logxor sign (%bignum-ref b i))))
  (%normalize-bignum res len-b))

;;;; There used to be a bunch of code to implement "efficient" versions of LDB
;;;; and DPB here.  But it apparently was never used, so it's been deleted.
;;;;   --njf, 2007-02-04

;;;; TRUNCATE

;;; This is the original sketch of the algorithm from which I implemented this
;;; TRUNCATE, assuming both operands are bignums. I should modify this to work
;;; with the documentation on my functions, as a general introduction. I've
;;; left this here just in case someone needs it in the future. Don't look at
;;; this unless reading the functions' comments leaves you at a loss. Remember
;;; this comes from Knuth, so the book might give you the right general
;;; overview.
;;;
;;; (truncate x y):
;;;
;;; If X's magnitude is less than Y's, then result is 0 with remainder X.
;;;
;;; Make x and y positive, copying x if it is already positive.
;;;
;;; Shift y left until there's a 1 in the 30'th bit (most significant, non-sign
;;;       digit)
;;;    Just do most sig digit to determine how much to shift whole number.
;;; Shift x this much too.
;;; Remember this initial shift count.
;;;
;;; Allocate q to be len-x minus len-y quantity plus 1.
;;;
;;; i = last digit of x.
;;; k = last digit of q.
;;;
;;; LOOP
;;;
;;; j = last digit of y.
;;;
;;; compute guess.
;;; if x[i] = y[j] then g = (1- (ash 1 digit-size))
;;; else g = x[i]x[i-1]/y[j].
;;;
;;; check guess.
;;; %UNSIGNED-MULTIPLY returns b and c defined below.
;;;    a = x[i-1] - (logand (* g y[j]) #xFFFFFFFF).
;;;       Use %UNSIGNED-MULTIPLY taking low-order result.
;;;    b = (logand (ash (* g y[j-1]) (- digit-size)) (1- (ash 1 digit-size))).
;;;    c = (logand (* g y[j-1]) (1- (ash 1 digit-size))).
;;; if a < b, okay.
;;; if a > b, guess is too high
;;;    g = g - 1; go back to "check guess".
;;; if a = b and c > x[i-2], guess is too high
;;;    g = g - 1; go back to "check guess".
;;; GUESS IS 32-BIT NUMBER, SO USE THING TO KEEP IN SPECIAL REGISTER
;;; SAME FOR A, B, AND C.
;;;
;;; Subtract g * y from x[i - len-y+1]..x[i]. See paper for doing this in step.
;;; If x[i] < 0, guess is screwed up.
;;;    negative g, then add 1
;;;    zero or positive g, then subtract 1
;;; AND add y back into x[len-y+1..i].
;;;
;;; q[k] = g.
;;; i = i - 1.
;;; k = k - 1.
;;;
;;; If k>=0, goto LOOP.
;;;
;;; Now quotient is good, but remainder is not.
;;; Shift x right by saved initial left shifting count.
;;;
;;; Check quotient and remainder signs.
;;; x pos y pos --> q pos r pos
;;; x pos y neg --> q neg r pos
;;; x neg y pos --> q neg r neg
;;; x neg y neg --> q pos r neg
;;;
;;; Normalize quotient and remainder. Cons result if necessary.


;;; This used to be split into multiple functions, which shared state
;;; in special variables *TRUNCATE-X* and *TRUNCATE-Y*. Having so many
;;; special variable accesses in tight inner loops was having a large
;;; effect on performance, so the helper functions have now been
;;; refactored into local functions and the special variables into
;;; lexicals.  There was also a lot of boxing and unboxing of
;;; (UNSIGNED-BYTE 32)'s going on, which this refactoring
;;; eliminated. This improves the performance on some CL-BENCH tests
;;; by up to 50%, which is probably signigicant enough to justify the
;;; reduction in readability that was introduced. --JES, 2004-08-07
(defun bignum-truncate (x y)
  (declare (type bignum-type x y))
  (let (truncate-x truncate-y)
    (labels
        ;;; Divide X by Y when Y is a single bignum digit. BIGNUM-TRUNCATE
        ;;; fixes up the quotient and remainder with respect to sign and
        ;;; normalization.
        ;;;
        ;;; We don't have to worry about shifting Y to make its most
        ;;; significant digit sufficiently large for %BIGFLOOR to return
        ;;; digit-size quantities for the q-digit and r-digit. If Y is
        ;;; a single digit bignum, it is already large enough for
        ;;; %BIGFLOOR. That is, it has some bits on pretty high in the
        ;;; digit.
        ((bignum-truncate-single-digit (x len-x y)
           (declare (type bignum-index len-x))
           (let ((y (%bignum-ref y 0)))
             (declare (type bignum-element-type y))
             (if (not (logtest y (1- y)))
                 ;; Y is a power of two.
                 ;; SHIFT-RIGHT-UNALIGNED won't do the right thing
                 ;; with a shift count of 0 or -1, so special case this.
                 (cond ((= y 0)
                        (error 'division-by-zero))
                       ((= y 1)
                        ;; We could probably get away with (VALUES X 0)
                        ;; here, but it's not clear that some of the
                        ;; normalization logic further down would avoid
                        ;; mutilating X.  Just go ahead and cons, consing's
                        ;; cheap.
                        (values (copy-bignum x len-x) 0))
                       (t
                        (let ((n-bits (1- (integer-length y))))
                          (values
                           (shift-right-unaligned x 0 n-bits len-x
                                                  ((= j res-len-1)
                                                   (setf (%bignum-ref res j)
                                                         (%ashr (%bignum-ref x i) n-bits))
                                                   res)
                                                  res)
                           (logand (%bignum-ref x 0) (1- y))))))
                 (do ((i (1- len-x) (1- i))
                      (q (%allocate-bignum len-x))
                      (r 0))
                     ((minusp i)
                      (let ((rem (%allocate-bignum 1)))
                        (setf (%bignum-ref rem 0) r)
                        (values q rem)))
                   (declare (type bignum-element-type r))
                   (multiple-value-bind (q-digit r-digit)
                       (%bigfloor r (%bignum-ref x i) y)
                     (declare (type bignum-element-type q-digit r-digit))
                     (setf (%bignum-ref q i) q-digit)
                     (setf r r-digit))))))
        ;;; This returns a guess for the next division step. Y1 is the
        ;;; highest y digit, and y2 is the second to highest y
        ;;; digit. The x... variables are the three highest x digits
        ;;; for the next division step.
        ;;;
        ;;; From Knuth, our guess is either all ones or x-i and x-i-1
        ;;; divided by y1, depending on whether x-i and y1 are the
        ;;; same. We test this guess by determining whether guess*y2
        ;;; is greater than the three high digits of x minus guess*y1
        ;;; shifted left one digit:
        ;;;    ------------------------------
        ;;;   |    x-i    |   x-i-1  | x-i-2 |
        ;;;    ------------------------------
        ;;;    ------------------------------
        ;;; - | g*y1 high | g*y1 low |   0   |
        ;;;    ------------------------------
        ;;;             ...               <   guess*y2     ???
        ;;; If guess*y2 is greater, then we decrement our guess by one
        ;;; and try again.  This returns a guess that is either
        ;;; correct or one too large.
         (bignum-truncate-guess (y1 y2 x-i x-i-1 x-i-2)
           (declare (type bignum-element-type y1 y2 x-i x-i-1 x-i-2))
           (let ((guess (if (%digit-compare x-i y1)
                            all-ones-digit
                            (%bigfloor x-i x-i-1 y1))))
             (declare (type bignum-element-type guess))
             (loop
                 (multiple-value-bind (high-guess*y1 low-guess*y1)
                     (%multiply guess y1)
                   (declare (type bignum-element-type low-guess*y1
                                  high-guess*y1))
                   (multiple-value-bind (high-guess*y2 low-guess*y2)
                       (%multiply guess y2)
                     (declare (type bignum-element-type high-guess*y2
                                    low-guess*y2))
                     (multiple-value-bind (middle-digit borrow)
                         (%subtract-with-borrow x-i-1 low-guess*y1 1)
                       (declare (type bignum-element-type middle-digit)
                                (fixnum borrow))
                       ;; Supplying borrow of 1 means there was no
                       ;; borrow, and we know x-i-2 minus 0 requires
                       ;; no borrow.
                       (let ((high-digit (%subtract-with-borrow x-i
                                                                high-guess*y1
                                                                borrow)))
                         (declare (type bignum-element-type high-digit))
                         (if (and (%digit-compare high-digit 0)
                                  (or (%digit-greater high-guess*y2
                                                      middle-digit)
                                      (and (%digit-compare middle-digit
                                                           high-guess*y2)
                                           (%digit-greater low-guess*y2
                                                           x-i-2))))
                             (setf guess (%subtract-with-borrow guess 1 1))
                             (return guess)))))))))
        ;;; Divide TRUNCATE-X by TRUNCATE-Y, returning the quotient
        ;;; and destructively modifying TRUNCATE-X so that it holds
        ;;; the remainder.
        ;;;
        ;;; LEN-X and LEN-Y tell us how much of the buffers we care about.
        ;;;
        ;;; TRUNCATE-X definitely has at least three digits, and it has one
        ;;; more than TRUNCATE-Y. This keeps i, i-1, i-2, and low-x-digit
        ;;; happy. Thanks to SHIFT-AND-STORE-TRUNCATE-BUFFERS.
         (return-quotient-leaving-remainder (len-x len-y)
           (declare (type bignum-index len-x len-y))
           (let* ((len-q (- len-x len-y))
                  ;; Add one for extra sign digit in case high bit is on.
                  (q (%allocate-bignum (1+ len-q)))
                  (k (1- len-q))
                  (y1 (%bignum-ref truncate-y (1- len-y)))
                  (y2 (%bignum-ref truncate-y (- len-y 2)))
                  (i (1- len-x))
                  (i-1 (1- i))
                  (i-2 (1- i-1))
                  (low-x-digit (- i len-y)))
             (declare (type bignum-index len-q k i i-1 i-2 low-x-digit)
                      (type bignum-element-type y1 y2))
             (loop
                 (setf (%bignum-ref q k)
                       (try-bignum-truncate-guess
                        ;; This modifies TRUNCATE-X. Must access
                        ;; elements each pass.
                        (bignum-truncate-guess y1 y2
                                               (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                                               (%bignum-ref truncate-x i-1)
                                               (%bignum-ref truncate-x i-2))
                        len-y low-x-digit))
                 (cond ((zerop k) (return))
                       (t (decf k)
                          (decf low-x-digit)
                          (shiftf i i-1 i-2 (1- i-2)))))
             q))
        ;;; This takes a digit guess, multiplies it by TRUNCATE-Y for a
        ;;; result one greater in length than LEN-Y, and subtracts this result
        ;;; from TRUNCATE-X. LOW-X-DIGIT is the first digit of X to start
        ;;; the subtraction, and we know X is long enough to subtract a LEN-Y
        ;;; plus one length bignum from it. Next we check the result of the
        ;;; subtraction, and if the high digit in X became negative, then our
        ;;; guess was one too big. In this case, return one less than GUESS
        ;;; passed in, and add one value of Y back into X to account for
        ;;; subtracting one too many. Knuth shows that the guess is wrong on
        ;;; the order of 3/b, where b is the base (2 to the digit-size power)
        ;;; -- pretty rarely.
         (try-bignum-truncate-guess (guess len-y low-x-digit)
           (declare (type bignum-index low-x-digit len-y)
                    (type bignum-element-type guess))
           (let ((carry-digit 0)
                 (borrow 1)
                 (i low-x-digit))
             (declare (type bignum-element-type carry-digit)
                      (type bignum-index i)
                      (fixnum borrow))
             ;; Multiply guess and divisor, subtracting from dividend
             ;; simultaneously.
             (dotimes (j len-y)
               (multiple-value-bind (high-digit low-digit)
                   (%multiply-and-add guess
                                      (%bignum-ref truncate-y j)
                                      carry-digit)
                 (declare (type bignum-element-type high-digit low-digit))
                 (setf carry-digit high-digit)
                 (multiple-value-bind (x temp-borrow)
                     (%subtract-with-borrow (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                                            low-digit
                                            borrow)
                   (declare (type bignum-element-type x)
                            (fixnum temp-borrow))
                   (setf (%bignum-ref truncate-x i) x)
                   (setf borrow temp-borrow)))
               (incf i))
             (setf (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                   (%subtract-with-borrow (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                                          carry-digit borrow))
             ;; See whether guess is off by one, adding one
             ;; Y back in if necessary.
             (cond ((%digit-0-or-plusp (%bignum-ref truncate-x i))
                    guess)
                   (t
                    ;; If subtraction has negative result, add one
                    ;; divisor value back in. The guess was one too
                    ;; large in magnitude.
                    (let ((i low-x-digit)
                          (carry 0))
                      (dotimes (j len-y)
                        (multiple-value-bind (v k)
                            (%add-with-carry (%bignum-ref truncate-y j)
                                             (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                                             carry)
                          (declare (type bignum-element-type v))
                          (setf (%bignum-ref truncate-x i) v)
                          (setf carry k))
                        (incf i))
                      (setf (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                            (%add-with-carry (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                                             0 carry)))
                    (%subtract-with-borrow guess 1 1)))))
        ;;; This returns the amount to shift y to place a one in the
        ;;; second highest bit. Y must be positive. If the last digit
        ;;; of y is zero, then y has a one in the previous digit's
        ;;; sign bit, so we know it will take one less than digit-size
        ;;; to get a one where we want. Otherwise, we count how many
        ;;; right shifts it takes to get zero; subtracting this value
        ;;; from digit-size tells us how many high zeros there are
        ;;; which is one more than the shift amount sought.
        ;;;
        ;;; Note: This is exactly the same as one less than the
        ;;; integer-length of the last digit subtracted from the
        ;;; digit-size.
        ;;;
        ;;; We shift y to make it sufficiently large that doing the
        ;;; 2*digit-size by digit-size %BIGFLOOR calls ensures the quotient and
        ;;; remainder fit in digit-size.
         (shift-y-for-truncate (y)
           (let* ((len (%bignum-length y))
                  (last (%bignum-ref y (1- len))))
             (declare (type bignum-index len)
                      (type bignum-element-type last))
             (- digit-size (integer-length last) 1)))
         ;;; Stores two bignums into the truncation bignum buffers,
         ;;; shifting them on the way in. This assumes x and y are
         ;;; positive and at least two in length, and it assumes
         ;;; truncate-x and truncate-y are one digit longer than x and
         ;;; y.
         (shift-and-store-truncate-buffers (x len-x y len-y shift)
           (declare (type bignum-index len-x len-y)
                    (type (integer 0 (#.digit-size)) shift))
           (cond ((zerop shift)
                  (bignum-replace truncate-x x :end1 len-x)
                  (bignum-replace truncate-y y :end1 len-y))
                 (t
                  (bignum-ashift-left-unaligned x 0 shift (1+ len-x)
                                                truncate-x)
                  (bignum-ashift-left-unaligned y 0 shift (1+ len-y)
                                                truncate-y))))) ;; LABELS
      ;;; Divide X by Y returning the quotient and remainder. In the
      ;;; general case, we shift Y to set up for the algorithm, and we
      ;;; use two buffers to save consing intermediate values. X gets
      ;;; destructively modified to become the remainder, and we have
      ;;; to shift it to account for the initial Y shift. After we
      ;;; multiple bind q and r, we first fix up the signs and then
      ;;; return the normalized results.
      (let* ((x-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp x (%bignum-length x)))
             (y-plusp (%bignum-0-or-plusp y (%bignum-length y)))
             (x (if x-plusp x (negate-bignum x nil)))
             (y (if y-plusp y (negate-bignum y nil)))
             (len-x (%bignum-length x))
             (len-y (%bignum-length y)))
        (multiple-value-bind (q r)
            (cond ((< len-y 2)
                   (bignum-truncate-single-digit x len-x y))
                  ((plusp (bignum-compare y x))
                   (let ((res (%allocate-bignum len-x)))
                     (dotimes (i len-x)
                       (setf (%bignum-ref res i) (%bignum-ref x i)))
                     (values 0 res)))
                  (t
                   (let ((len-x+1 (1+ len-x)))
                     (setf truncate-x (%allocate-bignum len-x+1))
                     (setf truncate-y (%allocate-bignum (1+ len-y)))
                     (let ((y-shift (shift-y-for-truncate y)))
                       (shift-and-store-truncate-buffers x len-x y
                                                         len-y y-shift)
                       (values (return-quotient-leaving-remainder len-x+1
                                                                  len-y)
                               ;; Now that RETURN-QUOTIENT-LEAVING-REMAINDER
                               ;; has executed, we just tidy up the remainder
                               ;; (in TRUNCATE-X) and return it.
                               (cond
                                 ((zerop y-shift)
                                  (let ((res (%allocate-bignum len-y)))
                                    (declare (type bignum-type res))
                                    (bignum-replace res truncate-x :end2 len-y)
                                    (%normalize-bignum res len-y)))
                                 (t
                                  (shift-right-unaligned
                                   truncate-x 0 y-shift len-y
                                   ((= j res-len-1)
                                    (setf (%bignum-ref res j)
                                          (%ashr (%bignum-ref truncate-x i)
                                                 y-shift))
                                    (%normalize-bignum res res-len))
                                   res))))))))
          (let ((quotient (cond ((eq x-plusp y-plusp) q)
                                ((typep q 'fixnum) (the fixnum (- q)))
                                (t (negate-bignum-in-place q))))
                (rem (cond (x-plusp r)
                           ((typep r 'fixnum) (the fixnum (- r)))
                           (t (negate-bignum-in-place r)))))
            (values (if (typep quotient 'fixnum)
                        quotient
                        (%normalize-bignum quotient (%bignum-length quotient)))
                    (if (typep rem 'fixnum)
                        rem
                        (%normalize-bignum rem (%bignum-length rem))))))))))


;;;; There used to be a pile of code for implementing division for bignum digits
;;;; for machines that don't have a 2*digit-size by digit-size divide instruction.
;;;; This happens to be most machines, but all the SBCL ports seem to be content
;;;; to implement SB-BIGNUM:%BIGFLOOR as a VOP rather than using the code here.
;;;; So it's been deleted.  --njf, 2007-02-04

;;;; general utilities

;;; Internal in-place operations use this to fixup remaining digits in the
;;; incoming data, such as in-place shifting. This is basically the same as
;;; the first form in %NORMALIZE-BIGNUM, but we return the length of the buffer
;;; instead of shrinking the bignum.
#!-sb-fluid (declaim (sb!ext:maybe-inline %normalize-bignum-buffer))
(defun %normalize-bignum-buffer (result len)
  (declare (type bignum-type result)
           (type bignum-index len))
  (unless (= len 1)
    (do ((next-digit (%bignum-ref result (- len 2))
                     (%bignum-ref result (- len 2)))
         (sign-digit (%bignum-ref result (1- len)) next-digit))
        ((not (zerop (logxor sign-digit (%ashr next-digit (1- digit-size))))))
        (decf len)
        (setf (%bignum-ref result len) 0)
        (when (= len 1)
              (return))))
  len)

;;; This drops the last digit if it is unnecessary sign information. It repeats
;;; this as needed, possibly ending with a fixnum. If the resulting length from
;;; shrinking is one, see whether our one word is a fixnum. Shift the possible
;;; fixnum bits completely out of the word, and compare this with shifting the
;;; sign bit all the way through. If the bits are all 1's or 0's in both words,
;;; then there are just sign bits between the fixnum bits and the sign bit. If
;;; we do have a fixnum, shift it over for the two low-tag bits.
(defun %normalize-bignum (result len)
  (declare (type bignum-type result)
           (type bignum-index len)
           (inline %normalize-bignum-buffer))
  (let ((newlen (%normalize-bignum-buffer result len)))
    (declare (type bignum-index newlen))
    (unless (= newlen len)
      (%bignum-set-length result newlen))
    (if (= newlen 1)
        (let ((digit (%bignum-ref result 0)))
          (if (= (%ashr digit sb!vm:n-positive-fixnum-bits)
                 (%ashr digit (1- digit-size)))
              (%fixnum-digit-with-correct-sign digit)
              result))
        result)))

;;; This drops the last digit if it is unnecessary sign information. It
;;; repeats this as needed, possibly ending with a fixnum magnitude but never
;;; returning a fixnum.
(defun %mostly-normalize-bignum (result len)
  (declare (type bignum-type result)
           (type bignum-index len)
           (inline %normalize-bignum-buffer))
  (let ((newlen (%normalize-bignum-buffer result len)))
    (declare (type bignum-index newlen))
    (unless (= newlen len)
      (%bignum-set-length result newlen))
    result))

;;;; hashing

;;; the bignum case of the SXHASH function
(defun sxhash-bignum (x)
  (let ((result 316495330))
    (declare (type fixnum result))
    (dotimes (i (%bignum-length x))
      (declare (type index i))
      (let ((xi (%bignum-ref x i)))
        (mixf result
              (logand most-positive-fixnum
                      (logxor xi
                              (ash xi -7))))))
    result))